Different Plans for Indian Independence are explained in this article.
The August Offer
Background
- During the Second World War, the Indian National Congress (INC) leaders were upset with the British government for having pulled India into a war without the consent of the Indians. Lord Linlithgow had declared India to be at war with Germany without consultation.
- France had fallen to the Axis Powers and the Allies were suffering many reverses in the war. There was also a change of government in Britain and Winston Churchill became the British Prime Minister in 1940.
- The British government was keen to get Indian support for the war. Britain herself was in danger of being occupied by the Nazis and in this light, the INC softened its stand. It said that support for the war would be provided if power was transferred to an interim government in India.
- Then, the Viceroy Linlithgow made a set of proposals called the ‘August offer’. For the first time, the right of Indians to frame their own constitution was acknowledged.
August Offer – Proposal
- The British government proposed dominion status as an objective for India.
- Following the war, a representative Indian body would be formed to draft a constitution for the country.
- The Viceroy’s Council would be extended, allowing more Indians to participate than whites.
- An advising war council would be constituted after the war.
- The British government, however, refused to grant complete independence.
- The British will retain control of the defense, finance, and home affairs, as well as all Republic of India services.
- Viceroy further indicated that the disagreement between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League will be addressed before any constitutional reform.
- Minorities were guaranteed that their views will be taken into account in a future constitution.
Response
- The Congress rejected the August Offer of 1940 because they desired complete independence, but they were offered Dominion status instead.
- The League likewise turned down the offer, stating that they would accept nothing less than the country’s separation.
- Following this, Mahatma Gandhi launched the Individual Satyagraha to affirm the right to free expression. Because he did not desire violence, he avoided a mass satyagraha.
- Vinoba Bhave, Nehru, and Brahma Datt were the first three satyagrahis. All three were sentenced to prison.
- The satyagrahis also started the ‘Delhi Chalo Movement,’ which was a march towards Delhi.
- The movement did not gain traction and was abandoned in December 1940.
- Following the August Offer’s failure, the British government dispatched the Cripps Mission to India in an attempt to gain Indian support for the war.
Evaluation
- For the first time, Indians’ inherent right to write their own constitution was recognized, and Congress’ demand for a constituent assembly was granted.
- The offer of Dominion status was made explicitly.
- The viceroy’s executive council was expanded in July 1941, giving the Indians a majority of 8 out of 12 for the first time, but the British remained in charge of defense, finance, and home affairs.
- In addition, a National Defence Council with purely advisory functions was established.
Cripps Mission
The August Offer created furore amongst Indians and, particularly, Congress and Gandhi due to the British endorsement of Jinnah’s separatist stance, which caused a limited scale of protest, Individual Satyagraha. This also led the British to think about the greater delegation of power to Indians.
Background
- Japan was advancing outside the eastern borders of India and the fall of Burma was a jolt to the British in the war. The threat of a Japanese invasion on India was looming and Indian support was essential for Britain’s war efforts. The falling of Singapore and Rangoon in the Second World War compelled Winston Churchill and the British war cabinet to send a high-powered mission to India under the supervision of Stafford Cripps.
- Britain was facing pressure from the US and other allied leaders over its own imperial policies in India and also to secure Indian cooperation for the Allied war effort. Churchill was against his own stance while signing the Atlantic Charter, 1941, proposed by Franklin D. Roosevelt, the then-American President. The aim of the Mission was to win the cooperation of India with Britain vis-a-vis the War. This also led the British government to send Cripps to India.
Proposals of Cripps Mission
- Setting up of an Indian dominion. This dominion would have the freedom to remain with the British Commonwealth or to secede from it. It would also be at liberty to take part in international organizations.
- A Constituent Assembly would be formed to frame a new constitution for the country. This Assembly would have members elected by the provincial assemblies and also nominated by the princes.
- Any province unwilling to join the Indian dominion could form a separate union and have a separate constitution.
- The transfer of power and the rights of minorities would be safeguarded by negotiations between the Constituent Assembly and the British government.
- In the meantime, until this new constitution came into force, India’s defence would be controlled by the British and the powers of the Governor-General would remain unaltered.
Response
- Gandhi: He called Cripps Mission proposals a “Post-dated Cheque drawnon a failing bank”. This was due to the promise of granting dominion status after the end of the Second World War.
- Congress: The right of the Princely States to send representatives to the Constituent Assembly and authority for the Provinces to opt out of the Indian Union was not well received by Congress. Congress wanted immediate independence and pan-India cooperation. The offer of the “Dominion Status” was dead at that moment. Congress also wanted Indians to have full control over the defence. The Congress Working Committee rejected the Cripps’ proposals officially on 7 April 1942.
- Muslim League: The draft Declaration implicitly appeased the Muslim League’s demand for Pakistan by stating that any province unwilling to accept the constitution would be granted ‘the same status as the Indian Union. Still, the League disagreed with the proposal because it did not make a clear statement supporting the establishment of a separate state for Muslims.
- Liberals and Mahasabha: They also rejected the Cripps proposals, as they considered the secession proposals to be against the unity and security of India.
- Other: Other groups, such as Sikhs, Indian Christians, Depressed Classes, and Anglo-Indians, did not find anything in the proposals for their interests.
Significance of Cripps Mission
- A step ahead of the August Offer: Now, instead of “mainly” in Indian hands, as stated in the August Offer, the constitution-making process was to be “entirely” under the control of Indians.
- There was a detailed plan offered for the constituent assembly. In the interim, a sizable portion of the administration was made available to Indians.
- Elements of discord and disunity: Any province had the choice to create its own constitution, which served as the basis for India’s division. It also had the provision for Free India to leave the Commonwealth.
- British could not step backwards: The British now realised that they could not go backwards from the offers made by the Cripps Mission in spite of its failure.
- The offers for Indians to have a national government, own constitutional-making body, etc., were too much for Churchill and Britain, given their imperialist nature.
Why did the Cripps Mission Fail?
- The proposals were seen as too radical by the British and as too conservative by the INC who wanted complete independence.
- The Mission was rejected by the INC, the Muslim League and other Indian groups.
- The INC was against the provinces’ right to separately form unions as this was damaging to national unity.
- Muslim League did not like the idea of a single union of India.
- The Hindu Mahasabha and the Liberals were against the right of states to secede.
- The Depressed Classes objected because they were apprehensive about their status in a country where they would be in a minority.
- It is also believed that the mission failed because of a clear lack of support for it by the Viceroy Linlithgow, British PM Winston Churchill and the Secretary of State for India, Leo Amery.
*After the failure of the mission, Cripps returned to England, and the Congress led by Gandhi started their new campaign, the Quit India Movement in August 1942.
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C R Formula or the Rajaji Formula
Background
- During the Second World War, the British government, under the viceroyalty of Lord Linlithgow had said that any move towards an Indian statehood would be possible only if the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League resolve their differences.
- The League was increasingly demanding a separate nation of Pakistan for the Muslims whereas the INC was against the partitioning of the country.
- To break this deadlock between the two major political parties in India, C Rajagopalachari, INC member who was close to Mahatma Gandhi, proposed a set of plans called the C R Formula or Rajaji Formula.
- This was the first acknowledgement by a Congressman about the inevitability of the partition of the country and a tacit acceptance of Pakistan.
Proposals
- The Muslim League would join hands with the INC to demand independence from the British.
- Both parties would cooperate and form a provisional government at the centre.
- After the war, a commission would be entrusted with the task of demarcating those areas with an absolute majority of Muslims and a plebiscite to be held in those areas where all the inhabitants (Muslims and non-Muslims) would vote based on adult suffrage whether to form a separate sovereign nation or not.
- In case of partition, joint agreements to be made for the safeguarding of defence, communications and commerce.
- The above terms to come to fruition only if Britain transfers full powers to India.
Reaction
- In 1944, Gandhi and M A Jinnah held talks on the basis of the Rajaji Formula.
- The talks were a failure as Jinnah had objections to the proposal.
- Jinnah’s objections:
- He wanted the INC to accept the Two-Nation Theory.
- He did not want the entire population of the Muslim majority areas to vote on the plebiscite, but only the Muslim population in those areas.
- He was also against the idea of a common centre. Also, Jinnah wanted separate dominions to be created before the English left India.
- The Sikhs also looked upon the formula unfavourably because the formula meant a division of Punjab. Although the Sikhs were a big chunk of the population, there were not in the majority in any of the district.
- V D Savarkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee of the Hindu Mahasabha and Srinivas Sastri of the National Liberal Federation were also against the C R Formula.
- The INC, which was hitherto opposed to the partition of the country was willing to give some concessions to get the League on board for talks for independence, but the League was more interested in Pakistan than freedom.
Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference
The Wavell Plan was first presented at the Shimla Conference in 1945. It was named after Viceroy of India, Lord Wavell.
The Shimla Conference was convened in order to agree on the Wavell Plan for Indian self-government, which provided for separate representations on communal lines.
Both the plan and the conference failed on account of the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress not coming to an agreement.
Background of the Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference
The Second World War had caused many socio-economic problems in the British Empire, especially when it came to maintaining their overseas colonies. Thus the British Government saw it fit to grant India the freedom it had been demanding for so long. In addition, the Quit India Movement and an increase in revolutionary activity only made the British position in India tenuous at best.
Lord Wavell, who became the Viceroy in 1943, was charged with presenting a formula for the future government of India that would be acceptable to both the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League, allowing for a smooth transition of power. Lord Wavell was considered an apt person for this task as he had been the head of the Indian Army and thus had a better understanding of the Indian situation.
What did the Wavell Plan Propose?
In May 1945 Wavell visited London and discussed his ideas with the British Government. These London talks resulted in the formulation of a definite plan of action which was officially made public simultaneously on 14 June 1945 by L.S. Amery, the Secretary of State for India. The Wavell Plan proposed the following:
- The Viceroy’s Executive Council was to have all Indian members except the Viceroy himself and the Commander-in-Chief.
- The council was to have a ‘balanced representation’ of all Indians including ‘caste-Hindus’, Muslims, Depressed Classes, Sikhs, etc. Muslims were given 6 out of 14 members which accounted for more than their share of the population (25%).
- The Viceroy/Governor-General would still have the power of veto but its use would be minimal.
- The foreign affairs portfolio would be transferred from the Governor-General to an Indian member. The defence would be handled by a British general until the full transfer of power was made.
- A conference would be convened by the Viceroy to get a list of all the members recommended to the Council from all parties concerned. In case a joint list was not agreed upon, separate lists would be taken from the parties. This was to be the Shimla Conference.
- If this plan worked, similar councils would be formed in all provinces comprising of local leaders.
What happened at the Shimla Conference?
Lord Wavell invited 21 political leaders including Mahatma Gandhi and M A Jinnah to Shimla, the summer capital of British India to discuss the Wavell Plan on June 25th, 1945.
- The conference was a failure because the League and the Congress could not settle their differences.
- Jinnah insisted that only League members could be the Muslim representatives in the Council, and opposed to the Congress nominating Muslim members. This was because Jinnah wanted the League to be the sole representative of Muslims in India. Congress would never agree to this demand.
- In the Wavell Plan, there were 6 Muslim representatives out of 14 members, which was more than the Muslim share of the population. Despite this, the League wanted the power of veto to any constitutional proposal which it believed was not in its interest. Congress opposed this unreasonable demand also.
- Jinnah refused to give the names to the council unless the government acknowledged that only the Muslim League was the exclusive representative of Indian Muslims.
- The Wavell Plan, thus, was dissolved with the failure of the conference. And with it the last chance to avoid partition.
- After this, the war ended and a new Labour government was elected in Britain. This new government was intent on giving independence to India without much delay and sent the Cabinet Mission with that purpose.
The failure of the Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference was a watershed moment for the Indian Independence struggle. All steps taken to prevent partition had been met with failure, meaning that it was inevitable.
Cabinet Mission
Background
By 1946, political pressure for Indian independence had reached its peak. It was evident that British rule in India was nearing its end. Following the failure of the Cripps Mission 1942, there was little left to offer in terms of conciliation, except full freedom.
The growing discontent within the military (as evident in the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny) with soldiers showing solidarity with nationalist movements, created fears of the unreliability of the armed forces in suppressing another large-scale rebellion like the Quit India Movement of 1942.
Keeping these things in mind, Clement Atlee (British Prime Minister) decided to send a mission to India for the transfer of powers from the British Indian government to Indian leaders.
The mission had three members mentioned with their posts in the table below:
| Cabinet Mission Members | Cabinet Mission Members – Designation |
| Pethick Lawrence | Secretary of State for India |
| Stafford Cripps | President of the Board of Trade |
| A.V. Alexander | First Lord of Admiralty |
Objectives of Cabinet Mission
- To obtain an agreement with the Indian leaders as to the framing of a constitution for India.
- To formulate a constitution-making body (the Constituent Assembly of India).
- To establish an Executive Council with the support of the major Indian parties.
Cabinet Mission Proposals
The Cabinet Mission arrived in Delhi on March 24, 1946, and engaged in extended discussions with leaders of various political groups, focusing on two key issues: the formation of an interim government and the principles for drafting a new constitution to grant India independence. Since the Congress and the Muslim League could not agree on the critical question of whether India should remain united or be partitioned, the mission eventually proposed its own solution to the constitutional deadlock in May 1946. The main points of the plan are:
- Rejection of Pakistan: The Cabinet Mission outright rejected the Muslim League’s demand for a separate, full-fledged Pakistan. The mission believed that partition would lead to serious economic, political, and administrative challenges.
- Grouping of Provincial Assemblies: The existing provincial assemblies were to be organized into three sections:
- Section A: Hindu-majority provinces (Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar, and Orissa).
- Section B: Muslim-majority provinces (Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Sindh).
- Section C: Bengal and Assam, which also had significant Muslim populations.
- Three-Tier Government Structure: A three-tier executive and legislative framework was proposed at the provincial, section, and union levels.
- Constituent Assembly Formation: A constituent assembly would be elected by the provincial assemblies using proportional representation, with voting in three groups: General, Muslims, and Sikhs. This assembly would consist of 389 members—292 from provincial assemblies, 4 from chief commissioner’s provinces, and 93 from princely states. In the Constituent Assembly, representatives from groups A, B, and C would convene separately to discuss provincial constitutions. Later all the groups will meet collectively to frame the Union Constitution.
- Common Centre Authority: A central authority would manage defence, communication, and external affairs within a federal framework for India. Decision-Making in Central Legislature: Communal issues in the central legislature would be resolved by a simple majority vote from both communities present.
- Provincial Autonomy: Provinces were to enjoy full autonomy and retain residual powers. Princely State Independence: Princely states would no longer be under British paramountcy and could negotiate arrangements with successor governments or the British government.
- Formation of Interim Government: Meanwhile, an interim government was to be established from the constituent assembly.
Cabinet Mission Reactions
The proposals put forth by the Cabinet Mission were met with a mixed response from Indian political leaders and parties. The lack of consensus between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League further complicated the situation, as both parties had differing views on the mission’s recommendations.
- Indian National Congress: The Congress initially welcomed the idea of a Constituent Assembly and a unified India. However, it objected to the proposal of grouping provinces, especially when it seemed to grant Muslim-majority areas significant autonomy.
- Muslim League: The League initially accepted the plan, particularly because it allowed for Muslim-majority provinces to group together. However, they later rejected the mission after Congress opposed the idea of mandatory grouping, seeing it as a betrayal of Muslim interests and their demand for Pakistan.
Cabinet Mission Failure
The Cabinet Mission ultimately failed due to the inability of the Congress and the Muslim League to reconcile their differences. The major points of contention were the compulsory grouping of provinces and the lack of clarity on whether the provinces could later opt out of the groups.
Jinnah and the League objected to the new central government. He geared to agitate for Pakistan and urged Muslims to demand Pakistan by any means. He called for ‘Direct Action Day’ on 16 August 1946.
This call led to widespread communal rioting in the country with 5000 people being killed on the first day in Calcutta. Communal riots spread to many other areas notably Noakhali and Bihar.
There was a call for the partitioning of the country on account of the riots. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was one of the first Congress leaders to acknowledge the inevitability of the partition as a means to stop the brutal violence.
Formation of Interim Government
- The Viceroy invited 14 men to form the interim government. There were 5 from the Congress, 5 from the League, 1 member each representing the Sikh, Parsee, Indian Christian and scheduled caste communities.
- Both the League and the Congress were given the right to nominate 5 members to the Viceroy’s interim council. The Congress nominated Zakir Hussain as one of the members to which the League objected saying only it represented Indian Muslims and no other party. The Muslim League did not take part in it.
- An Interim Government dominated by Congress was established, and thus Jawaharlal Nehru sworn in as its head on September 2, 1946. Despite his leadership role, Nehru maintained his party’s strong opposition to the mandatory grouping of provinces proposed by the Cabinet Mission.
- On October 26, 1946, Lord Wavell discreetly integrated the Muslim League into the Interim Government, attempting to foster a sense of collaboration among the major political factions in India.
- The new government began the task of framing a constitution for the country.
- Congress-led governments were formed in most provinces including the NWFP. In Bengal and Sind, the League formed the governments.
Mountbatten Plan
Lord Mountbatten (India’s last viceroy) proposed a plan in May 1947 according to which provinces were to be declared independent successor states with the power to choose whether to join the constituent assembly or not.
Mountbatten Plan Background
- Lord Mountbatten came to India as the last Viceroy and was assigned the task of a speedy transfer of power by the then British Prime Minister Clement Atlee.
- In May 1947, Mountbatten came up with a plan under which he proposed that the provinces be declared independent successor states and then be allowed to choose whether to join the constituent assembly or not. This plan was called the ‘Dickie Bird Plan’.
- Jawaharlal Nehru (Born on November 14, 1889) when apprised of the plan, vehemently opposed it saying it would lead to Balkanisation of the country. Hence, this plan was also called Plan Balkan.
- Then, the viceroy came up with another plan called the June 3 Plan. This plan was the last plan for Indian independence. It is also called the Mountbatten Plan.
- The June 3 Plan included the principles of partition, autonomy, sovereignty to both nations, right to make their own constitution.
- Above all, the Princely States such as Jammu and Kashmir were given a choice to either join India or Pakistan. The consequences of these choices would affect the new nations for decades to come.
- This plan was accepted by both the Congress and the Muslim League. By then, the Congress had also accepted the inevitability of the partition.
- This plan was put into action by the Indian Independence Act 1947 which was passed in the British Parliament and received the royal assent on 18 July 1947.
Provisions of the Mountbatten Plan
- British India was to be partitioned into two dominions – India and Pakistan.
- The constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly would not be applicable to the Muslim-majority areas (as these would become Pakistan). The question of a separate constituent assembly for the Muslim-majority areas would be decided by these provinces.
- As per the plan, the legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab met and voted for the partition. Accordingly, it was decided to partition these two provinces along religious lines.
- The legislative assembly of Sind would decide whether to join the Indian constituent assembly or not. It decided to go to Pakistan.
- A referendum was to be held on NWFP (North-Western Frontier Province) to decide which dominion to join. NWFP decided to join Pakistan while Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan boycotted and rejected the referendum.
- The date for the transfer of power was to be August 15, 1947.
- To fix the international boundaries between the two countries, the Boundary Commission was established chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe. The commission was to demarcate Bengal and Punjab into the two new countries.
- The princely states were given the choice to either remain independent or accede to India or Pakistan. The British suzerainty over these kingdoms was terminated.
- The British monarch would no longer use the title ‘Emperor of India’.
- After the dominions were created, the British Parliament could not enact any law in the territories of the new dominions.
- Until the time the new constitutions came into existence, the Governor-General would assent any law passed by the constituent assemblies of the dominions in His Majesty’s name. The Governor-General was made a constitutional head.
Source: NCERT
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